2012

2012 END OF THE WORLD - BELIEFS

SCIENTIFIC EXPERTS from around the world are predicting that five years from now, all life on Earth could well come to an end. Some are saying it’ll be humans that would set it off. Others believe that a natural phenomenon will be the cause. And the religious folks are saying it’ll be God himself who would press the stop button. The following are some likely arguments as to why the world would end by the year 2012.


Reason One: Mayan calendar
The first to predict 2012 as the end of the world were the Mayans, a bloodthirsty race that were good at two things -- building highly accurate astrological equipment out of stone and sacrificing virgins.

Thousands of years ago they managed to calculate the length of the lunar moon as 329.53020 days, only 34 seconds out. The Mayan calendar predicts that the earth will end on December 21, 2012. Given that they were pretty close to the mark with the lunar cycle, it’s likely they’ve got the end of the world right as well.


Reason two: Sun storms
Solar experts from around the world monitoring the sun have made a startling discovery. Our sun is in a bit of strife. The energy output of the sun is, like most things in nature, cyclic and it’s supposed to be in the middle of a period of relative stability. However, recent solar storms have been bombarding the earth with lot of radiation energy. It’s been knocking out power grids and destroying satellites. This activity is predicted to get worse and calculations suggest it’ll reach its deadly peak sometime in 2012.

Reason three: The Atom smasher
Scientists in Europe have been building the world’s largest particle accelerator. Basically, its a 27 km tunnel designed to smash atoms together to find out what makes the universe tick. However, the mega-gadget has caused serious concern, with some scientists suggesting that it’s properly even a bad idea to turn it on in the first place. They’re predicting all manner of deadly results, including mini black holes. So when this machine is fired up for its first serious experiment in 2012, the world could be crushed into a super-dense blob the size of a basketball.

Reason Four: Super Volcano
Yellowstone National Park in United States is famous for its thermal springs and old faithful geyser. The reason for this is simple -- it’s sitting on top of the world’s biggest volcano and geological experts are beginning to get nervous sweats. The Yellowstone volcano has a pattern of erupting every 650,000 years or so, and we’re many years overdue for an explosion that will fill the atmosphere with ash, blocking the sun and plunging the earth into a frozen winter that could last up to 15,000 years. The pressure under the Yellowstone is building steadily, and geologists have set 2012 as a likely date for the big bang.

Reason Five: The Physicists
This one’s case of bog -- simple maths mathematics. Physicists at Berkely University have been crunching the numbers. They’ve determined that the earth is well overdue for a major catastrophic event. Even worse, they’re claiming that their calculations prove that we’re all going to die, very soon. They are also saying that their prediction comes with a certainty of 99 per cent; and 2012 just happens to be the best guess as to when it occurs.

Reason Six: Earth’s Magnetic field
We all know the Earth is surrounded by a magnetic field that shields us from most of the sun’s radiation. What you might not know is that the magnetic poles we call North and South have a nasty habit of swapping places every 750,000 years or so -- and right now we’re about 30,000 years overdue. Scientists have noted that the poles are drifting apart roughly 20-30 kms each year, much faster than ever before, which points to a pole-shift being right around the corner. While the pole shift is under way, the magnetic field is disrupted and will eventually disappear, sometimes for up to 100 years. The result is enough UV outdoors to crisp your skin in seconds, killing everything it touches.

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Nano Technology

Introduction to Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology is defined as the study and use of structures between 1 nanometer and 100 nanometers in size. To give you an idea about this is, it would take eight 100 nanometer particles side by side to match the width of a human hair.

Introduction to the Nanoparticles
Scientists have been studying and working with nano particles for centuries, but the effectiveness of their work has been hampered by their inability to see the structure of nano particles. In recent decades the development of microscopes capable of displaying particles as small as atoms has allowed scientists to see what they are working with.

 

Applications of Nano Technology:

Medicine
Researchers are developing customized nano particles the size of molecules that can be deliver drugs directly to diseased cells in human body. When it's perfected, this method should be greatly reduce the damage treatment such as chemotherapy does to a patient's healthy cells. Nano medicine refers to future developments in medicine that will be based on the ability to build nano robots. In the future these nano robots could actually be programmed to repair specific diseased cells, functioning in a similiar way to antibodies in our natural healing processes

Electronics
Nanotechnology holds some answers for how we might increase the capabilities of electronics devices while we reduce their weight and power consumption.

Space
Nanotechnology may hold the key to making space-flight more practical. Advancements in nano materials make lightweight solar sails and a cable for the space elevator possible. By significantly reducing the amount of rocket fuel required, these advances could lower the cost of reaching orbit and traveling in space.

Food
Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is grown to how it is packaged. Companies are developing nano materials that will make a difference not only in the taste of food, but also in food safety, and the health benefits that food delivers

Fuel Cells
Nanotechnology is being used to reduce the cost of catalysts used in fuel cells to produce hydrogen ions from fuel such as methanol and to improve the efficiency of membranes used in fuel cells to separate hydrogen ions from other gases such as oxygen.

Solar Cells
Companies have developed nanotech solar cells that can be manufactured at significantly lower cost than conventional solar cells.

Batteries
Companies are currently developing batteries using nano materials. One such battery will be a good as new after sitting on the shelf for decades. Another battery can be recharged significantly faster than conventional batteries.

Fuels
Nanotechnology can address the shortage of fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline by making the production of fuels from low grade raw materials economical, increasing the mileage of engines, and making the production of fuels from normal raw materials more efficient.

Chemical Sensors
Nanotechnology can enable sensors to detect very small amounts of chemical vapors. Various types of detecting elements, such as carbon nano tubes, zinc oxide nanowires or palladium nano particles can be used in nanotechnology-based sensors. Because of the small size of nano tubes, nano wires, or nano particles, a few gas molecules are sufficient to change the electrical properties of the sensing elements. This allows the detection of a very low concentration of chemical vapors.

Better Air Quality
Nanotechnology can improve the performance of catalysts used to transform vapors escaping from cars or industrial plants into harmless gasses. That's because catalysts made from nano particles have a greater surface area to interact with the reacting chemicals than catalysts made from larger particles. The larger surface area allows more chemicals to interact with the catalyst simultaneously, which makes the catalyst more effective.

Cleaner Water
Nanotechnology is being used to develop solutions to three very different problems in water quality. One challenge is the removal of industrial wastes, such as a cleaning solvent called TCE, from groundwater. Nano particles can be used to convert the contaminating chemical through a chemical reaction to make it harmless. Studies have shown that this method can be used successfully to reach contaminates dispersed in underground ponds and at much lower cost than methods which require pumping the water out of the ground for treatment.

Fabric
Making composite fabric with nano-sized particles or fibers allows improvement of fabric properties without a significant increase in weight, thickness, or stiffness as might have been the case with previously-used techniques.

Sporting Goods
If you are a tennis or golf fan, you will be glad to hear that even sporting goods has wandered into the nano realm. Current nanotechnology applications in the sports arena include increasing the strength of tennis racquets, filling any imperfections in club shaft materials and reducing the rate at which air leaks from tennis balls.

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Multiple Access Techniques In Cellular Systems

Hi this is an article about the Multiple Access Techniques used in the cellular systems.

                                                                                                                                                                The goal in the design of a cellular system is to be able to handle as many calls as possible in a given bandwidth with the specifi ed blocking probability (reliability).

Multiplexing deals with the division of the resources to create multiple channels. Multiplexing can create channels in frequency, time, etc., and the corresponding terms are then frequency division multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM), etc. Since the amount of spectrum available is limited, we need to fi nd ways to allow multiple users to share the available spectrum simultaneously. Shared access is used to implement a multiple access scheme when access by many users to a channel is required.

For example, one cancreate multiple channels using TDM, but each of these channels can be accessedby a group of users using the ALOHA multiple access scheme. The multiple access schemes can be either reservation-based or random.

Multiple access schemes allow many users to share the radio spectrum. Sharing the bandwidth effi ciently among users is one of the main objectives of multiple access schemes.

The variability of wireless channels presentsboth challenges and opportunities in designing multiple access communicationssystems. Multiple access strategy has an impact on robustness and interference levels generated in other cells. Therefore, multiple access schemes are designed to maintain orthogonality and reduce interference effects.

Multiple access schemes can be classifi ed as reservation-based multiple access (e.g., FDMA, TDMA, CDMA) and random multiple access (e.g., ALOHA, CSMA) . If data traffi c is continuous and a small transmission delay is required (for example in voice communication) reservationbased multiple access is used. The family of reservation-based multiple access includes frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code division multiple access (CDMA). In many wireless systems for voice communication, the control channel is based on random multiple access and the communication channel is based on FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA.

The reservation-based multiple access technique has a disadvantage in that once the channel is assigned, it remains idle if the user has nothing to transmitwhile other users may have data waiting to be transmitted. This problem is critical when data generation is random and has a high peak-rate to average-rate ratio. In this situation, random multiple access is more effi cient, because a communication channel is shared by many users and users transmit their data in a random or partially coordinated fashion.

ALOHA and carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) are examples of random multiple access. If the data arrives in a random manner, and the data length is large, then random multiple access combined with a reservation protocol will perform better than both random- and reservationbased schemes.

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GPRS in GSM

Hi this is about the GPRS technology that is widely used in GSM Phones.

The general packet radio service (GPRS) enhances GSM data services
signifi cantly by providing end-to-end packet switched data connections. This is
particularly effi cient in Internet/intranet traffi c, where short bursts of intense data
communications are actively interspersed with relatively long periods of inactivity.
Because there is no real end-to-end connection to be established, setting up a
GPRS call is almost instantaneous and users can be continuously on-line. Users have the additional benefi ts of paying for the actual data transmitted, rather than for connection time. Because GPRS does not require any dedicated end-to-end connection, it only uses network resources and bandwidth when data is actually being transmitted. This means that a given amount of radio bandwidth can be shared effi ciently among many users simultaneously.

The next phase in the high-speed road map is the evolution of current short message service (SMS), such as smart messaging and unstructured supplementary service data (USSD), toward the new GPRS, a packet data service using TCP/IP and X.25 to offer speeds up to 115 kbps. GPRS has been standardized to optimally
support a wide range of applications ranging from very frequent transmissions of medium to large data volume. Services of GPRS have been developed to reduce connection set-up time and allow an optimum usage of radio resources. GPRS provides a packet data service for GSM where time slots on the air interface
can be assigned to GPRS over which packet data from several mobile stations is multiplexed.


A similar evolution strategy, also adopting GPRS, has been developed for DAMPS (IS-136). For operators planning to offer wideband multimedia services, the move to GPRS packet-based data bearer service is signifi cant; it is a relatively small step compared to building a totally new 3G IMT-2000 network. Use of the GPRS network architecture for IS-136 packet data service enables data subscription roaming with GSM networks around the globe that support GPRS and its evolution. The IS-136 packet data service standard is known as GPRS-136. GPRS-136 provides the same capabilities as GSM GPRS. The user can access either X.25 or an IP-based data network. GPRS provides a core network platform for current GSM operators not only to expand the wireless data market in preparation for the introduction of 3G services, but also a platform on which to build IMT-2000 frequencies should they acquire them.

The implementation of GPRS has a limited impact on the GSM core network. It simply requires the addition of new packet data switching and gateway nodes, and an upgrade to existing nodes to provide a routing path for packet data between the wireless terminal and a gateway node. The gateway node provides interworking with external packet data networks for access to the Internet, intranet, and databases.

GPRS supports all widely used data communicationsprotocols, including IP, so it is possible to connect with any data source fromanywhere in the world using a GPRS mobile terminal.  GPRS supports applications ranging from low-speed short messages to high-speed corporate LAN communications. However, one of the key benefi ts of GPRS — that it is connected through the existing GSM air interface modulation scheme — is also a limitation, restricting its potential for delivering higher data rates than 115 kbps. To build even higher rate data capabilities into GSM, a new modulation scheme is needed.

GPRS can be implemented in the existing GSM systems. Changes are required in an existing GSM network to introduce GPRS. The base station subsystem (BSS) consists of a base station controller (BSC) and packet control unit (PCU). The PCU supports all GPRS protocols for communication over the air interface. Its function is to set up, supervise, and disconnect packet switched calls. The packet control unit supports cell change, radio resource confi guration, and channel assignment. The base station transceiver (BTS) is a relay station without protocol functions. It performs modulation and demodulation.

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HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switching Data)

Hi this is one data transfering technology used in the GSM mobiles for internet usage.

High-speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) is a feature that enables the co-allocation of multiple full rate traffi c channels (TCH/F) of GSM into an HSCSD confi guration. The aim of HSCSD is to provide a mixture of services with different air interface user rates by a single physical layer structure. The available capacity of an HSCSD confi guration is several times the capacity of a TCH/F, leading to a significant enhancement in air interface data transfer capability.


Ushering faster data rates into the mainstream is the new speed of 14.4 kbps per time slot and HSCSD protocols that approach wireline access rates of up to 57.6 kbps by using multiple 14.4 kbps time slots. The increase from the current baseline of 9.6 kbps to 14.4 kbps is due to a nominal reduction in the error- correction overhead of the GSM radio link protocol (RLP), allowing the use of a higher data rate.

For operators, migration to HSCSD brings data into the mainstream, enabled in many cases by relatively standard software upgrades to base station (BS) and mobile switching center (MSC) equipment. Flexible air interface resource allocation allows the network to dynamically assign resources related to the air interface
usage according to the network operator’s strategy, and the end-user’s request for a change in the air interface resource allocation based on data transfer needs. The provision of the asymmetric air interface connection allows simple mobile equipment to receive data at higher rates than otherwise would be possible with a symmetric connection.

For end-users, HSCSD enables the roll-out of mainstream high-end segment services that enable faster web browsing, fi le downloads, mobile video-conference and navigation, vertical applications, telematics, and bandwidth-secure mobile local area network (LAN) access. Value-added service providers will also be able
to offer guaranteed quality of service and cost-effi cient mass-market applications, such as direct IP where users make circuit-switched data calls straight into a GSM network router connected to the Internet. To the end-user, the value-added service provider or the operator is equivalent to an Internet service provider that offers a fast, secure dial-up Internet protocol service at cheaper mobile-to-mobile rates. HSCSD is provided within the existing mobility management.  Roaming is also possible. The throughput for an HSCSD connection remains constant for the duration of the call, except for interruption of transmission during handoff. The handoff is simultaneous for all time slots making up an HSCSD connection. Endusers wanting to use HSCSD have to subscribe to general bearer services. Supplementary services applicable to general bearer services can be used simultaneously with HSCSD.



Firmware on most current GSM PC cards needs to be upgraded. The reduced RLP layer also means that a stronger signal strength is necessary. Multiple time slot usage is probably only effi ciently available in off-peak times, increasing overall off-peak idle capacity usage. HSCSD is not a very feasible solution for bursty
data applications.

ENHSCSD=FALSE,
object: BSC [BASICS]
range: TRUE, FALSE
default: FALSE

Enable HSCSD, this parameter specifies whether the feature 'High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)' is enabled for the BSC or not.

Notes:
1) This parameter enables HSCSD for the BSC base only. To activate it, however, it must be explicitly enabled for each BTS (see CREATE BTS [BASICS]: BTSHSCSD).

2) As a mandatory precondition for HSCSD the features 'early classmark sending' (see SET BTS  [OPTIONS]:EARCLM) and 'pooling' (see parameter ENPOOL) must be enabled! 

Principle: HSCSD is a feature which allows the 'bunching' of up to 4 consecutive radio timeslots for data connections of up to 38,4 (= 4 x 9,6) kbit/s (multislot connections). The data rate depends on the bearer capability requested by the MS and the negotiation result between MS and MSC. Each HSCSD connection consists of 1 main TCH which carries the main signalling (both FACCH and SACCH) and further 1..3  secondary TCHs. All radio timeslots used for one connection are FR timeslots located on the same TRX and
use the same frequency hopping mode and the same TSC. 

Connection modes: There are 2 types of multislot connections:

Symmetric and asymmetric ones. In symmetric mode all secondary TCHs are bi-directional (UL and DL) and in asymmetric mode the secondary channels are only uni-directional (DL) TCHs or can be a mix of  bi-directional and uni-directional TCHs (example: One 'HSCSD 3+2' call consists of: one main TCH, one secondary bi-directional TCH and one secondary uni-directional TCH). The downlink based asymmetry allows the use of a receive rate higher than the transmission rate and is thus very typical for Internet  applications. The asymmetric mode is only possible for non-transparent data connections.

Resource allocation: The BSC is responsible for the flexible air resource allocation. It may alter the number of TCH/F as well as the channel codings used for the connection. Reasons for the change of the resource allocation may be either the lack of radio resources, handover and/or the maintenance of the service quality. The change of the air resource allocation is done by the BSC using 'service level upgrading and downgrading' procedures. For transparent HSCSD connections the BSC is not allowed to change the user data rate, but it may alter the number of TCHs used by the connection (in this case the data rate per TCH changes). For non-transparent calls the BSC is also allowed to downgrade the user rate to a lower value.

Handover: 
In symmetric mode individual signal level and quality reporting for each used channel is applied. For an asymmetric HSCSD configuration individual signal level and quality reporting is used for the main TCH. The quality measurements reported on the main channel are based on the worst quality measured on the main and the unidirectional downlink timeslots used. In both symmetric and asymmetric HSCSD configuration the neighbour cell measurements are reported on each uplink channel used. All TCHs used in an HSCSD connection are handed over simultaneously. The BSC may alter the number of timeslots used for the connection and the channel codings when handing the connection over to the new channels. All kinds of inter-cell handovers are supported, intracell handover is possible only with cause 'complete to inner' or 'inner to complete'.

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Data Evolution in GSM Technology

Hi this is about the evolution in GSM Technology for data transfers.

From a radio access perspective, adding 3G capabilities to 2G systems mainly means supporting higher data rates. Possible scenarios depend on spectrum availability for the network service provider. Depending on the spectrum situation, two different migration paths can be supported:

Reframing of existing spectrum bands
New or modified spectrum bands


Two 3G radio access schemes are identifi ed to support the different spectrum scenarios:

1. Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE) with high-level modulation in  a 200 kHz TDMA channel is based on plug-in transceiver equipment, thereby allowing the migration of existing bands in small spectrum  segments.

2. Universal mobile telecommunications services (UMTS) is a new radio  access network based on 5 MHz WCDMA and optimized for effi cient support of 3G services. UMTS can be used in both new and existing spectra.

From a network point of view, 3G capabilities implies the addition of packet switched (PS) services, Internet access, and IP connectivity. With this approach, the existing mobile networks reuse the elements of mobility support, user authentication service handling, and circuit switched (CS) services. With packet switched services, IP connectivity can then be added to provide a mobile multimedia core network by evolving the existing mobile network.

GSM is moving to develop enhanced cutting-edge, customer-focused solutions to meet the challenges of the new millennium and 3G mobile services [29]. When GSM was fi rst introduced, no one could have predicted the dramatic growth of the Internet and the rising demand for multimedia services. These developments have brought about new challenges to the world of GSM. For GSM operators, the emphasis is now rapidly changing from that of instigating and driving the development of technology to fundamentally enabling mobile data transmission to that of improving speed, quality, simplicity, coverage, and reliability in terms of tools and services that will boost mass market take-up.

Users are increasingly looking to gain access to information and services wherever they are and whenever they want. GSM should provide that connectivity. Internet access, web browsing and the whole range of mobile multimedia capability are the major drivers for development of higher data speed technologies. Current data traffi c on most GSM networks is modest, less than 5% of total GSM traffi c. But with the new initiatives coming to fruition during the course of the next two to three years, exponential growth in data traffi c is forecast. The use of messaging-based applications may reach up to about 90% by the year 2008. GSM data transmission using high-speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) and GPRS may reach a penetration of about 80% by 2008 [1]. GSM operators have two nonexclusive options for evolving their networks to 3G wideband multimedia operation: (1) using GPRS and EDGE in the existing radio spectrum, and in small amounts of the new spectrum; or (2) using WCDMA in the new 2 GHz bands, or in large amounts of the existing spectrum. Both approaches offer a high degree of investment fl exibility because roll-out can proceed in line with market demand with the extensive reuse of existing network equipment and radio sites.

In the new 2 GHz bands, 3G capabilities are delivered using a new wideband radio interface that offers much higher user data rates than are available today — 384 kbps in the wide area and up to 2 Mbps in the local area. Of equal importance for such services is the high-speed packet switching provided by GPRS and its connection to public and private IP networks.

GSM and digital (D)AMPS (IS-136) operators can use existing radio bands to deliver some of the 3G services, even without the new wideband spectrum by evolving current networks and deploying GPRS and EDGE technologies. In the early years of 3G service deployment, a large proportion of wireless traffic will still be voice-only and low-rate data. So whatever the ultimate capabilities of 3G networks, effi cient and profi table ways of delivering more basic wireless services are still needed.

The significance of EDGE for today’s GSM operators is that it increases data rates up to 384 kbps and potentially even higher in a good quality radio environment using current GSM spectrum and carrier structures more efficiently. EDGE is both a complement and an alternative to new WCDMA coverage. EDGE also has the effect of unifying the GSM, D-AMPS and WCDMA services through the use of dual-mode terminals.

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List of commands in Windows Command Prompt

Hi this is a list of commands from a-z that we use in windows command prompt. Other than this any commands you knows please write in comments.

A-Z windows XP commands

A
ADDUSERS Add or list users to/from a CSV file
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
ASSOC Change file extension associations
ASSOCIAT One step file association
ATTRIB Change file attributes

B
BOOTCFG Edit Windows boot settings
BROWSTAT Get domain, browser and PDC info

C
CACLS Change file permissions
CALL Call one batch program from another
CD Change Directory - move to a specific Folder
CHANGE Change Terminal Server Session properties
CHKDSK Check Disk - check and repair disk problems
CHKNTFS Check the NTFS file system
CHOICE Accept keyboard input to a batch file
CIPHER Encrypt or Decrypt files/folders
CleanMgr Automated cleanup of Temp files, recycle bin
CLEARMEM Clear memory leaks
CLIP Copy STDIN to the Windows clipboard.
CLS Clear the screen
CLUSTER Windows Clustering
CMD Start a new CMD shell
COLOR Change colors of the CMD window
COMP Compare the contents of two files or sets of files
COMPACT Compress files or folders on an NTFS partition
COMPRESS Compress individual files on an NTFS partition
CON2PRT Connect or disconnect a Printer
CONVERT Convert a FAT drive to NTFS.
COPY Copy one or more files to another location•
CSCcmd Client-side caching (Offline Files)
CSVDE Import or Export Active Directory data

D
DATE Display or set the date
DEFRAG Defragment hard drive
DEL Delete one or more files
DELPROF Delete NT user profiles
DELTREE Delete a folder and all subfolders
DevCon Device Manager Command Line Utility
DIR Display a list of files and folders
DIRUSE Display disk usage
DISKCOMP Compare the contents of two floppy disks
DISKCOPY Copy the contents of one floppy disk to another
DISKPART Disk Administration
DNSSTAT DNS Statistics
DOSKEY Edit command line, recall commands, and create macros
DSADD Add user (computer, group..) to active directory
DSQUERY List items in active directory
DSMOD Modify user (computer, group..) in active directory
DSRM Remove items from Active Directory

E
ECHO Display message on screen
ENDLOCAL End localisation of environment changes in a batch file
ERASE Delete one or more files
EXIT Quit the current script/routine and set an errorlevel
EXPAND Uncompress files
EXTRACT Uncompress CAB files

F
FC Compare two files
FIND Search for a text string in a file
FINDSTR Search for strings in files
FOR /F Loop command: against a set of files
FOR /F Loop command: against the results of another command
FOR Loop command: all options Files, Directory, List
FORFILES Batch process multiple files
FORMAT Format a disk
FREEDISK Check free disk space (in bytes)
FSUTIL File and Volume utilities
FTP File Transfer Protocol
FTYPE Display or modify file types used in file extension associations

G
GLOBAL Display membership of global groups
GOTO Direct a batch program to jump to a labelled line

H
HELP Online Help

I
iCACLS Change file and folder permissions
IF Conditionally perform a command
IFMEMBER Is the current user in an NT Workgroup
IPCONFIG Configure IP

K
KILL Remove a program from memory

L
LABEL Edit a disk label
LOCAL Display membership of local groups
LOGEVENT Write text to the NT event viewer.
LOGOFF Log a user off
LOGTIME Log the date and time in a file

M
MAPISEND Send email from the command line
MBSAcli Baseline Security Analyzer.
MEM Display memory usage
MD Create new folders
MKLINK Create a symbolic link (linkd)
MODE Configure a system device
MORE Display output, one screen at a time
MOUNTVOL Manage a volume mount point
MOVE Move files from one folder to another
MOVEUSER Move a user from one domain to another
MSG Send a message
MSIEXEC Microsoft Windows Installer
MSINFO Windows NT diagnostics
MSTSC Terminal Server Connection (Remote Desktop Protocol)
MUNGE Find and Replace text within file(s)
MV Copy in-use files



N
NET Manage network resources
NETDOM Domain Manager
NETSH Configure network protocols
NETSVC Command-line Service Controller
NBTSTAT Display networking statistics (NetBIOS over TCP/IP)
NETSTAT Display networking statistics (TCP/IP)
NOW Display the current Date and Time
NSLOOKUP Name server lookup
NTBACKUP Backup folders to tape
NTRIGHTS Edit user account rights

P
PATH Display or set a search path for executable files
PATHPING Trace route plus network latency and packet loss
PAUSE Suspend processing of a batch file and display a message
PERMS Show permissions for a user
PERFMON Performance Monitor
PING Test a network connection
POPD Restore the previous value of the current directory saved by PUSHD
PORTQRY Display the status of ports and services
POWERCFG Configure power settings
PRINT Print a text file
PRNCNFG Display, configure or rename a printer
PRNMNGR Add, delete, list printers set the default printer
PROMPT Change the command prompt
PsExec Execute process remotely
PsFile Show files opened remotely
PsGetSid Display the SID of a computer or a user
PsInfo List information about a system
PsKill Kill processes by name or process ID
PsList List detailed information about processes
PsLoggedOn Who's logged on (locally or via resource sharing)
PsLogList Event log records
PsPasswd Change account password
PsService View and control services
PsShutdown Shutdown or reboot a computer
PsSuspend Suspend processes
PUSHD Save and then change the current directory

Q
QGREP Search file(s) for lines that match a given pattern.

R
RASDIAL Manage RAS connections
RASPHONE Manage RAS connections
RECOVER Recover a damaged file from a defective disk.
REG Registry: Read, Set, Export, Delete keys and values
REGEDIT Import or export registry settings
REGSVR32 Register or unregister a DLL
REGINI Change Registry Permissions
REM Record comments (remarks) in a batch file
REN Rename a file or files
REPLACE Replace or update one file with another
RD Delete folder(s)
RMTSHARE Share a folder or a printer
ROBOCOPY Robust File and Folder Copy
ROUTE Manipulate network routing tables
RUNAS Execute a program under a different user account
RUNDLL32 Run a DLL command (add/remove print connections)

S
SC Service Control
SCHTASKS Schedule a command to run at a specific time
SCLIST Display NT Services
SET Display, set, or remove environment variables
SETLOCAL Control the visibility of environment variables
SETX Set environment variables permanently
SHARE List or edit a file share or print share
SHIFT Shift the position of replaceable parameters in a batch file
SHORTCUT Create a windows shortcut (.LNK file)
SHOWGRPS List the NT Workgroups a user has joined
SHOWMBRS List the Users who are members of a Workgroup
SHUTDOWN Shutdown the computer
SLEEP Wait for x seconds
SLMGR Software Licensing Management (Vista/2008)
SOON Schedule a command to run in the near future
SORT Sort input
START Start a program or command in a separate window
SU Switch User
SUBINACL Edit file and folder Permissions, Ownership and Domain
SUBST Associate a path with a drive letter
SYSTEMINFO List system configuration

T
TASKLIST List running applications and services
TASKKILL Remove a running process from memory
TIME Display or set the system time
TIMEOUT Delay processing of a batch file
TITLE Set the window title for a CMD.EXE session
TLIST Task list with full path
TOUCH Change file timestamps
TRACERT Trace route to a remote host
TREE Graphical display of folder structure
TYPE Display the contents of a text file

U
USRSTAT List domain usernames and last login

V
VER Display version information
VERIFY Verify that files have been saved
VOL Display a disk label



W
WHERE Locate and display files in a directory tree
WHOAMI Output the current UserName and domain
WINDIFF Compare the contents of two files or sets of files
WINMSD Windows system diagnostics
WINMSDP Windows system diagnostics II
WMIC WMI Commands

X
XCACLS Change file and folder permissions
XCOPY Copy files and folders
:: Comment / Remark

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